Impacts of Volcanic Eruptions on Urban Communities

Impacts of Volcanic Eruptions on Urban Communities Volcanoes, Environment and People Degree Assessment Compare and contrast the impacts of volcanic eruptions on urban communities in pre industrial and post – industrial evolution societies. Introduction The industrial revolution refers to a period in history that roughly occurred between 1760 and 1840, which saw the transition from old to newer manufacturing processes. It is regarded as a major turning point in history, influencing most aspects of daily life, even today. The revolution saw a change from traditional hand production to the use of more modern tools, machines and new technologies. Technology became more advanced and its use became more significant. Gaillard (2007) suggests that pre industrial revolution societies, like those discussed in this essay had a more intimate relationship with the natural environment, which plays a key role when assessing the impacts of a volcanic eruption. In this essay I will firstly compare the impacts of a pre and post industrial revolution eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Their impacts on urban communities will then be discussed in comparison with the more recent eruptions of Eldfell in Iceland and the Soufriere Hills volcano in Montserrat. For the purposes of this essay urban communities will be defined as a substantial group of buildings or people in one area. To assess the impacts of a volcanic eruption on an urban community, the nature of the community will need to be considered. Impacts of the eruption will vary between communities depending on a number of factors including closeness to the eruption, infrastructure, transport links, predication and preparation and the overall development of the community (Marzocchi et al., 2004). Different types of volcanic events will also produce different types of hazard (pyroclastic flows, tephra fallout, and gas emissions) which also need be considered in the assessment of a volcanic eruption. Pre Industrial Revolution Vesuvius, AD79 Mount Vesuvius is located in a densely populated area, with thousands of people living on its flanks and in the immediate vicinity of the volcano (Marzocchi et al., 2004). In the past Vesuvius has produced several large eruptions, including the most well known eruption which destroyed the town of Pompeii in AD79. This was a VEI5, Plinian eruption that consisted of two stages. Usually Plinian eruptions are classified by three stages; an initial eruption phase with a sustained eruptive column of gas and pyroclastic material; a second phase in which the eruption column collapses and generates pyroclastic flows which could reach speeds of up to 100km/h and finally the generation of dense, rapid mudflows generated by water on steep slopes (Barberi Zuccaro, 2006). In the case of the Vesuvius eruption in AD79 only stage one and two occurred. There were no mudflows, only pyroclastic flows. (Lirer et al., 1973). The eruption produced a 32km high eruption column and extensive tephra all out south of the eruption resulting in accumulation of tephra 2.8m thick over Pompeii and other regions (Sigurdsson et al., 1982). Sigurdsson et al (1982) presents evidence to support the collapse of roofs under the weight of pumice that fell and consequently the destruction of infrastructure throughout the town. The tephra fall would also have made it very difficult for people to be outdoors around that time. The town would have been in total darkness and they would have had to wade through several metres of tephra on the ground. Despite this, this first stage of eruption was non lethal. It alarmed people but gave the majority of the population time to flee. 2000 deaths were accounted for out of the 20,000 people living in Pompeii and neighbouring towns (Luke, 2013). The second stage of the eruption consisted of six pyroclastic flows, during which most death and destruction to property occurred. Figure 1 details that between them, six pyroclastic flows travelled from the volcano, covering the towns of Herculaneum, Oplontis and Pompeii. The flows travelled 32km west across the Bay of Naples to Misenum and south east of Stabiae (Siggurdsson et al., 1982). Figure 1. Map of Vesuvius and surrounding towns showing pyroclastic flow deposits and the extent of the pyroclastic flows during the AD79 eruption (Source: Siggurdsson et al., 1982). The AD79 eruption of Vesuvius is an example of how communities with the most insecurity are the most vulnerable to hazards and have the capability of turning them from hazard to disaster (Gaillard, 2007). Through studies carried out on the settlement of Palma Campania a commune in Naples, Grattan (2006) showed that although most of the population was killed by tephra fall and pyroclastic flows there was reluctance to permanently build a settlement on the volcano plains, suggesting that instead of mitigating the effects of a volcanic eruption the communities instead chose to deal with them. They derived a method of coping and learning to live with the sudden environmental change. Compare this with the smaller VEI3 eruption of Vesuvius in 1944 and the impacts are very different. Although the eruption was smaller, there was more of an impact on nearby towns because of the nature of the community (Barnes, 2011). Important buildings such as schools and hospitals were built very close to fracture zones on the volcano flanks where open vents had previously been recorded. Under these conditions, living and having important amenities in such close proximity, events smaller than the 1944 eruption could be catastrophic from an economical and social point of view (Marzocchi et al., 2004). From a comparison of the two Vesuvius eruptions it is evident that the hazards each volcanic eruption produced were similar, however the way the communities chose to deal with them and therefore the impacts of each eruption are different for pre and post industrial communities. With a simpler way of life, post industrial revolution communities towns were able to easily change aspects of their daily life and adapt to living with a volcano. In a way, modern technology could be considered a downfall. If a super eruption were to happen it would apply stress to all aspects of modern day life. Air travel would be practically impossible because of airborne tephra, climate change would be severe and affect crop production across the globe, telecommunications would be restricted and huge areas would be affected by tephra fall and toxic gases (Grattan, 2006). Although that is a worst case scenario it highlights how post industrial revolution or modern communities may not always be better off. Post Industrial Revolution According to Marzocchi et al (2004) the hazards a volcanic eruption presents are hard to quantify because of the complexity of the eruptive processes and the unreliability of past data. However, it is thought that the advancement of communities means that a volcanic eruption poses a greater threat as there is more at risk. The eruption of Eldfell, a volcanic cone on the Icelandic island of Heimaey does however show how technologies of the industrial revolution could work towards reducing the hazards a volcanic eruption presents. Eldfell, 1973 The eruption of Eldfell began, without any warning, on the 23rd of January 1973, as a fissure crossing the island (Morgan, 2000). It caused a major crisis for the island, almost causing permanent evacuation. Volcanic ash fell on most of the island and more than 400 homes were destroyed as roofs were not constructed to deal with the weight from ashfall. Tractors were used to remove ash from the roofs and save some of the buildings (Morgan, 2000). Figure 2 shows the town of Vestmannaeyjar during and after the eruption and gives an idea of the scale of damaged caused by the eruption. It was most at risk because of its close location to the volcanic fissure. It was threatened by tephra fall and lava flows (Thorarinsson et al., 1973). The lava flows that threatened the towns also threatened the harbour, the islands main source of income. The response to the lava flows was to spray them with sea water, which cooled them down and stopped further advance, saving the harbour (Morgan, 2000). Figure 2. Houses nearest the fissure were destoryed by volcanic bombs thrown from the volcano during thr eruption (Left). The right image shows the town of Vestmannaeyjar after lava had advanced onto it. Cooling hoses used to cool the lava are highlighted in red. (Source: Morgan, 2000) Although the scale of the Eldfell eruption was relatively small, the town of Vestmannaeyjar was put at risk because of its location of the fissure. The fissure opened up at the edge of the town with the lava destroying 200 buildings, and more being damaged by tephra fall (Dugmore Và ©steinsson, 2012). Despite this the death toll for the Eldfell eruption was low as there were resources and space to evacuate those in immediate danger. Boats transported people off the island to Reyjavic where schools and other larger buildings acted as receptions for the evacuees. Compare this with the Pompeii eruption where the resources were unavailable and lack of knowledge made evacuating people not an option. Even if the resources were available, it would have been physically impossible to relocate such a large population. In Iceland, volcanism is considered to be one of the principal causes for lack of development (Dugmore Và ©steinsson, 2012). In most cases, the negative impacts of a volcanic eruption have been kept to a minimum both by environmental and cultural factors. There is little to encourage people to settle in immediate volcanic zones; high elevations are unfavourable in terms of climate and the steep slopes of the volcano flanks are difficult to build on. Social systems within Iceland are well suited to coping with volcanic hazards so when an event does occur it will not have such a great impact as if it were to occur in Britain for example (Dugmore Và ©steinsson, 2012). Soufriere Hills, 1995 Montserrat is a small island in the Caribbean that consists of 4 volcanic centres: Silver hill, Centre hills, Soufriere hills and South Soufriere hills. The map in figure 3 shows the location of the 4 volcanic centres on the island (Wadge Isaacs, 1988). Figure 3. Map of Montserrat showing the 4 volcanic domes. Chances Peak, responsible for the 1995 eruption is highlighted in red. (Source: Wadge Isaascs 1988) Chances peak was responsible for the eruptions from 1995 onwards (Figure 3). The eruption began in 1995 after a period of seismic activity and small warning signs of an eruption (Robertson et al., 2000). The most intense eruptions occurred in 1997 and consisted of pyroclastic flows, lahars and tephra fall. The advancement of tephra and pyroclastic flows and the settlements around the volcano that were destroyed throughout the eruption is shown in Figure 4. Figure 4. Chances Peak and the location of nearby settlements. Shows the progression of the eruption during 1997 to 1998 and depicts the settlements that were destroyed by pyroclastic flows, lahars and tephra fall. (Source: BBC Bitesize) Through recognition of distinctive patterns in seismic activity and monitoring signals, short term forecasts of volcanic activity were able to be made so those most in danger could be evacuated at the most appropriate time (Robertson et al., 2000). The islanders in close proximity to the volcano were evacuated to the north of the island, to neighbouring countries and to the UK as Montserrat is a British dependant territory (Young et al., 1998). In total, only 19 people who chose to stay behind were killed by the eruption. The Soufriere Hills volcano provided an opportunity for modern technology and volcanological thinking to be fully utilised in the thorough documentation and the provision of accurate and timely disaster mitigation advice (Young et al., 1998). Conclusion To conclude, the nature of a volcanic hazard, the social status of the population exposed to the hazard, geographic setting and the rehabilitation policy set up by authorities vary between time and place (Gaillard, 2007). In the cases discussed above, all the eruptions produced similar hazards (tephra, lahars, pyroclastic flows) but the nature of the community and the way the population responded made the impacts different. Post industrial revolution communities use technology to their advantage in aiding after the eruption but also before the eruption, in the prediction and preparation stages. From the case studies, it is evident that forecasting plays a fundamental role in volcanic hazard mitigation (Sparks, 2003). It is vital for predicting when/where eruptions will occur, the kinds of hazards associated with the eruption, how long the eruption is likely to last and if populations in close proximity to the volcano are at risk. Plans can then be put in place to reduce the risks related to an eruption on a community. References Barberi, F. and Zuccaro, G. (2006) Somma Vesuvio Mesimex: the final technical implimentation report Barnes, K. (2011). Volcanology: Europes ticking time bomb. Nature, 473(7346), pp.140-141. Dugmore AJ, and Và ©steinsson O (2012) Black sun, high flame and flood; volcanic hazards in Iceland. In Cooper J, Sheets P (eds) Surviving Sudden Environmental Change: Answers from Archaeology (University Press of Colorado: Boulder) p 67 -90. Gaillard, J.-C. (2006), â€Å"Traditional societies in the face of natural hazards: the 1991 Mt Pinatubo eruption and the Aetas of the Philippines†, International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 24(1), pp. 5-43 Gaillard, J. (2007). Resilience of traditional societies in facing natural hazards. Disaster Prevention and Management, 16(4), pp.522-544. Grattan, J. (2006). Aspects of Armageddon: An exploration of the role of volcanic eruptions in human history and civilization. Quaternary International, 151(1), pp.10-18. Lirer, L., Pescatore, T., Booth, B. and Walker, G. (1973). Two Plinian Pumice-Fall Deposits from Somma-Vesuvius, Italy. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 84(3), p.759. Luke, BT. (2013). Roman Pompeii, Geography of Death and Escape: The deaths of Vesuvius, PhD Theses, Kent State University Marzocchi, W., Sandri, L., Gasparini, P., Newhall, C. and Boschi, E. (2004). Quantifying probabilities of volcanic events: The example of volcanic hazard at Mount Vesuvius. J. Geophys. Res., 109(B11) Morgan, A. (2000). The Eldfell Eruption, Heimaey, Iceland: A 25-Year Retrospective. Geoscience Canada, 27(1). Robertson, R., Aspinall, W., Herd, R., Norton, G., Sparks, R. and Young, S. (2000). The 1995-1998 eruption of the Soufriere Hills volcano, Montserrat, WI. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 358(1770), pp.1619-1637. Sigurdsson, H. et al. (1982) The eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79: reconstruction from historical and volcanological evidence. American Journal of Archaeology 86, pp. 39–51 Sparks, R. (2003). Forecasting volcanic eruptions. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 210(1-2), pp.1-15. Thorarinsson, S., Steinthorsson, S., Einarsson, T., Kristmannsdottir, H. and Oskarsson, N. (1973). The Eruption on Heimaey, Iceland. Nature, 241(5389), pp.372-375. Wadge, G. and Isaacs, M. (1988). Mapping the volcanic hazards from Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat, West Indies using an image processor. Journal of the Geological Society, 145(4), pp.541-551. Young, S., Sparks, R., Aspinall, W., Lynch, L., Miller, A., Robertson, R. and Shepherd, J. (1998). Overview of the eruption of Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat, 18 July 1995 to December 1997. Geophysical Research Letters, 25(18), pp.3389-3392. 1

Minorities in the United States Essay

Assimilation is defined as a process by which an individual or a group acquires the attitudes and sentiments of other individuals or groups and then incorporates their history and experience to achieve a similar cultural life (Park & Burgess, 1921). Early American ancestors who were against assimilation in the country foresaw that immigrants to the country would throw away their cultural identities and the next generations would not retain those cultural identities. It was debated that assimilation could result to a similar nature of national identity in which immigrants could achieve both social and economic benefits by integrating themselves into the mainstream of the American culture (Barvosa-Carter). Immigrants are required to take an identity of an Anglo-Saxon, Protestant, white and monolingual English language speaker when integrating immigrants on the assimilationist model. However, assimilation disregarded the important distinction between a national identity and an ethnic identity. Assimilationists have influenced the American political culture with a false view that the growing cultural diversity among immigrants affects their loyalty to the country (Barvosa-Carter). Furthermore, an assimilationist approach adopts the notion that successful integration of immigrants in the country must remove all ethnic identities among immigrants (Barvosa-Carter). Definition of multiculturalism Multiculturalism is also called ethnic federalism because it is the official acknowledgment of unique, fundamentally fixed ethnic individuals and the sharing of resources based on the idea of membership in an ethnic group. It disapproves the concept of the role of ethnic diversity in the emergence of a single, culturally united people. Multiculturalism also affirms the right of every ethnic American to privilege and power, to demand recognition and respect, and to act in their native language (Salins, 1997). Moreover, multiculturalism came out of a conflict between social cohesion and cultural diversity that has been existent in the American political culture since its formation (Bryson, 2005). Assimilation versus Multiculturalism Assimilation in American life has been much more accommodating, flexible, and effective in allowing the country to retain its national unity despite the influx of different types of cultures and nationalities, while multiculturalism is more often an ideology of ethnic grievance and unavoidably results to ethnic conflict (Salins, 1997). There are two principles that are considered the foundation of multiculturalism and the opposites of assimilationism: immigrants should not throw away any of the cultural qualities they inherited from their ancestors and there will or can never be a single united nationalistic identity that all Americans can interrelate with (Salins, 1997). According to Chavez, multiculturalism supersedes affirmative action with a power to influence how all racial and ethnic groups in the country perceive themselves and conceptualize the country. Proponents of multiculturalism have not lost their belief in the capability of assimilation. The drive to traditionally assimilate ethnic minorities has been overwhelming in the United States, notably among the children of immigrants. Religion looks to be a more effective hindrance to complete assimilation than the temporal elements of culture (Chavez, 2009). Strengths and Limitations of Assimilation and Multiculturalism One of the disadvantages of multiculturalism is the failure to hear the voices of other people who live and share in the same country. However, multiculturalism has proved to be powerful and exclusionary because its primary framework and tools are borrowed from the history of anthropology (Michaelsen, 1999). According to Chavez (2009), the driving force for multiculturalism will not come from immigrants, but from their assimilated counterparts who are more affluent and established. However, multiculturalism will not promote progress, but will put the nation a step backward. The more culturally diverse Americans become, the more important that they commit themselves to a shared culture. The most notable attribute of American culture has been its capability to integrate different elements into a new unified culture (Chavez, 2009). Assimilation among Americans has always implied the notion of give and take and the American culture has been enhanced or improved by what individual ethnic groups contributed to it. (Chavez, 2009) Minority groups experiences Discrimination suffered by ethnic minorities in the United States has affected their achievements in life. The country faces two challenges in dealing with ethnic relations: the move to further eliminate the negative impact of racism that started with slavery and the successful assimilation of growing immigrants, particularly coming from South and Central America and Asia. Moreover, the immigration trend in the country has gained exceptional successes in making the nation’s motto a reality. However, each wave of immigration has resulted to tension between new types of immigrants and older, naturalized immigrants (Thernstrom, A & S, 2002). The nature and structure of life in the United States constitutes the social environment in which interpersonal relations among people of different religions, races and national origins occur. The estimated 190 million Americans are not just individual persons with psychological attributes, but belong to different types of groups: primary, secondary, family, associations, social networks, religious, racial, and social classes. The nature of these different types of groups and their interpersonal relationships has a fundamental impact on how people of different cultural backgrounds perceive and relate to each other (Gordon, 1964). The different cultural varieties of Americans have the tendency to be with their own social class and ethnic group for the main purpose of having the warm relationships with their primary groups, interacting with other cultural varieties of Americans mainly in neutral relationships with secondary groups (Gordon, 1964). In conclusion, the United States can cope with the influx of immigrants and increasing diversity by making sure that all Americans learn how to relate with different types of groups that exist in the country. They must learn to continually eliminate structural separation of different types of ethnic groups by enhancing their interaction on the job, on the civic environment, and in other areas of impersonal relations. The process of having a modern and industrial society is dependent on the commitment of mobility and interchangeability of individuals based on their occupational expertise and needs. The universal criteria of training and competence, which rely on the achievement of occupational roles, the choice of political leaders, the selection of living space, and the effective implementation of the educational process must exist in the country, while the criteria based on religion, racial background, and nationality must eliminate. If the structural separation of ethnic groups, brought by prejudices and the desire to maintain their own subculture and ethnic identity, the American society will experience, conflict, mediocrity and confusion (Gordon 1964). Chavez recommends that that all of ethnic minorities in the United States should think of themselves as Americans, no matter where they all come from or what reasons that brought their ancestors in the country. All Americans need to retain the idea that they are one people, not simply an integration of various and competing ethnic groups. Furthermore, the value for immigrant children to understand English than to retain their native language is also necessary to address the complexity of cultural diversity. Going beyond the line where ethnicity and race are the key elements that Americans identify themselves or establish loyalty is also needed. Retaining the values and principles that unite Americans must exist rather than their differences in ancestry (Chavez, 2009). The nation can also cope with the steady influx of immigrants by understanding the concept of culture. Cultures are sets of practices involving codes of communication, habits of interaction, expression of artistic talents, and standards of human behavior that need to be understood by Americans. Furthermore, cultures are interrelated with people because as people change their cultural practices, the entire cultures can and do change (Moya, 2002). Students and teachers can play an important role in helping the nation cope with the growing cultural diversity. They must learn to understand that certain ethnic groups are culturally deprived, while other ethnic groups are culturally rich. It is also important that students and educators must be provided with tools they need to learn the impact of daily interaction on different cultural practices. Understanding the notion of concept of culture will help explain the importance of cultural diversity. Cultures not only can familiarize Americans to the world, but can also be an important form of moral knowledge (Moya, 2002). References Barvosa-Carter, Edwina. American immigrants in American conflict. Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. Retrieved April 7, 2009, from http://journal. georgetown. edu/72/barvosa. cfm. Bryson, Bethany Paige (2005). Making Multiculturalism: Boundaries and Meaning in U. S. Palo Alto, California: Stanford University. Chavez, Linda (2009). Multiculturalism is driving us apart. USA Today. Retrieved April 7, 2009, from http://findarticles. com/p/articles/mim1272/is_n2612_v124/ai_18274647/ Gordon, Milton M. (1964). Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion and National Origins. Great Britain: Oxford University Press, Inc. Michaelsen, Scott (1999). Limits of Multiculturalism: Interrogating the Origins of American Anthropology. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Moya, Paula M. L. (2002). Learning From Experience: Minority Identities, Multicultural Struggles. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. Park, Robert E. & Burgess, Ernest W. (1921). Introduction to the Science of Sociology. Chicago, Il: University of Chicago Press. Salins, Peter D. (1997). Assimilation, American style: multiculturalism and ethnic relations. Reason. Los Angeles, California: Reason Foundation. Thernstrom, Abigail & Stephan, Eds. (2002). Beyond the Color Line: New Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity in America. Palo Alto, California: Hoover Institution Press.

Coping With Change Essay

P1- Discuss factors which affect the development of self-esteem M1- Compare two theories of self-esteem which contribute to our understanding of self-concept The NHS define self-esteem as being the opinion each individual has of themselves. NHS, (2015). It is the self-image and self –respect of an individual’s perception of themselves. Roshahl.c, (2008). This assignment is going to discuss the six factors that affect self-esteem. These factors are the growth promoting climate, the looking glass self, self-actualisation, ego identity, social identity and finally, the constructing of self-concept. Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fulfil the next one, and so on. Maslow, (1943). The self-actualisation theory was created by Maslow in 1943. This theory is based on the hierarchy of needs. This theory is an ongoing process. This theory is not something which is aimed for by a person, instead it’s something you do. In addition to this, the theory is not restricted to individuals; anyone is able to achieve this hierarchy of needs. The hierarchy is made up of levels these levels are; physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs and finally, is all of the above are achieved, according to Maslow they are able to then reach self-actualisation. Maslowski.R.M, Morgan.L, (1973). The first stage of this theory is the biological and physiological needs, in order to achieve this a person must have the basic needs of living, they are; air, food, fluids, shelter, warmth, shelter, warmth and sleep. The safety needs of the hierarchy include protection from elements, security, order, law, stability and finally freedom fear. The love and belongingness stage of Maslow’s theory requires friendship, intimacy, affection and love from work colleagues, family, friends and romantic relationships. McGuire.K.J, (2012) pp281. The fourth stage of the hierarchy of needs is the esteem of needs, to achieve this stage an individual must experience achievement, prestige, self-concept, statues, dominance, mastery, self-concept and respect from others. The final stage is the self-actualisation. This stage involves realising personal potential, self-fulfilment, seeking person growth and  peak experiences. Maslow states that without achieving the first four stages, self-actualisation cannot be achieved. The second theory is Erickson’s Ego theory. This is another theory which is based on stages. Erickson’s theory focuses on the eight stages of life starting with infant and finishing with older age. The theory is a lifespan model of development taking in five stages up to the age of 18 years old and three further stages beyond the age of 18 and into adulthood. Each stage has a conflict, resolution and a cumilation in age these will all be presented in the table below. Age Conflict Resolution Cumiliation in age Infancy 0-1 years old Basic trust vs. mistrust Hope Appreciation of independence and relatedness Early childhood 1-3years old Autonomy vs. Shame Will Acceptance of cycle of life from integration to disintegration Play age 3-6 years old Initiative vs. Guilty Purposely Humour, empathy and resilience School age 6-12 years old Industry vs. Inferiority Competence Humiliation, acceptance of the course of one’s life and unfulfilled hopes Adolescences 12-19 years olds Identity vs. confusion Fidelity Sense of complexity of relationships, values of tenderness and loving freely Early Adult 20-25 years Intimacy vs. Love isolation Love Sense of complexity of life; merging of sensory logical and aesthetic perception Adulthood 26-64 years old Generative vs. Care stagnation Care Caritas, caring for others, empathy and concern Old age 65 years old -death Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom Existential identity, a sense of integrity strong enough to withstand physical disintegration The growth promoting climate theory suggests that a person requires a supportive environment that encourages an individual to grow positively. The theorist of this theory is Carl Rogers. The growth promoting climate theory is a person centred approach. The purpose of the person centred approach is to change, understand personality as well as human relationship. Jones.R.N, (2010) PP102. According to Carl Rogers, a positive involves diversity, empowerment which means to allow the individual to grow and achieve. Other factors which are required to create a positive environment is open communication, freedom and the capability to reach their full potential. However, without a positive environment, the growing promotion climate theory cannot be achieves. The looking glass self theory looks at how an individual views themselves. The theorist of this theory is Horton Cooley. The looking glass self is another theory that is separated into stages. This theory is made up of three stages. The first stage id that a person imagines how they are perceived and viewed by others. The second stage of the looking glass theory is when a person imagines how they are judged by others and this is based and concluded by the first stage of the theory which is how a person imagines they are perceived by another individual. The final stage of  this theory is the experiencing of a type of feeling or reaction to the staged in one and two. Gbadebo.S.A, (2011), pp124. For example a person may believe that they are perceived as being polite and friendly to another individual. This would be the first stage of the theory (imaging how they are perceived by others). This would therefore lead to the individual imagining they are judged in a positive light and a well-mannered individual. This would be the second stage of the theory (the way in which a person imagines they are judged by others). The way in which an individual acts towards them would determine the opinion they have of them. Gba debo.S.A, (2011), pp124. If a person who is isolated in a situation is judged to be a polite friendly individual they are more likely to make friends as they may give off a friendly vibe encouraging people to want to engage with them however if they were perceived as being rude and arrogant, other may not want to associate or include the individual in their conversation and may even think the individual is purposely isolating themselves from the situation. The Social identity theory was created by Henri Tajfel in 1979. He proposed that groups which people belonged to were an important source of pride and self-esteem. These groups may be a person’s social class family or a person’s choice of football team. Groups give individuals a sense of identity and sense of belonging to the social world. Burke.P.j, (2009). This theory focuses on how we perceive and make sense of each other. This helps with the construction of society and culture. This theory suggests that people are interested in the information of others such as their beliefs, intentions and affiliations. Tajfel. H, (2010). This enables a person to interpret and understand the words and actions of another person as well as their decision makings. This also allows a predication of a person’s future. The final factor that affects a person’s self-esteem is the constructing of self-theory. A sense of self or personhood, of what kind of person one is. Identities always involve both sameness and difference, (2000) Penguin Dictionary. ‘Identity is about belonging, about what you have in common with some people and what differentiates you from others. At its most basic it gives you a sense of personal location, the stable core to individuality. But it is also about your social relationships, your complex involvement with o thers’ (1996). This theory consists of three main arguments they are; We are born with our  identities; identities and culturally and historically dependent, identities are fluid and fragmented and are a result of conscious and unconscious thought and emotion (affective attachment to particular identities). This theory consists of sources of identity, they are gender, age, sexuality, ethnicity, social class, consumption, employment, roles and responsibility, family networks, friendships, use of technology, politics, leisure activities and finally the body. All of the discussed theories are all contributing factors to the development of person’s self-esteem. All of which explain have a different understanding. Some were evidently based on the needs of an individual in order to live such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, others focused on the different stages of life a person experiences such as Erickson’s eight stages of life. M1- The aim of this next task is to compare two theo ries of self-esteem which contribute to our understanding of self-concept. The two theories this assignment is going to focus on are Erickson’s eight stages of life theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The first similarity of these two theories is that they are both broken down into stages however Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is split into five stages Maslow. A.H, (2013) whereas, Erickson’s life stages are split into six. The different number of stages is on difference between the two theories. A further difference between the two theories is that Erickson’s stages are based on the stages of life every individual experiences. Therefore the theory can be easily generalised to all individuals during a specific age group. In addition to this, Erickson’s ego theory is structured in a timeline of stages. However, the stages of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs are the requirements needed in life such as warmth, shelter, love and family. Rakowski.N, (2011). Therefore Erickson’s theory focuses on experience whereas Maslow’s theory focuses on the needs of an individual and the goals of achievement of an individual. An additional difference between Maslow’s and Erickson’s theory is that Maslow states that without successfully achieving one stage a person cannot proceed to achieve the next stage preventing a person for achieving actualisation. Erickson’s eight stages of life are experienced by all individuals throughout their life span and therefore all stages are experienced and unresolved stages can be resolved in later stages in life. Tiffany.L, (2014). Erickson’s ego theory focuses on psychosocial stages whereas Maslows hierarchy theory focused on the needs  of an individual. The year the two theories were developed is another comparison, Erickson’s Ego theory was developed in 1950 whereas Maslow’s hierarchy theory was developed in 1943. Erickson’s Ego theory has an overall finishing point which is when an individual achieves self-actualisations whereas Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a continuous cycle which continues until a person reach death. Tiffany.L, (2014). A final comparison of the two theories is that Erickson’s Ego theory was influenced by a theory which already existed; this was Freud’s theory regarding the structure and topography of personality. Maslow’s hierarchy theory on the other handed was an extended version of his own work rather than the work of others. Chapman, (2001). Both the theories of Abraham Maslow and Eric Erickson support the use of human response assessment in the experimental and behavioural perspectives. Mcleod.S. Erickson’s eight stages of life also identifies task which must be achieved at each stage and similarly to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, if these tasks are not achieved, a person cannot proceed successfully achieve the next tas k. Reference Page NHS, (2015). Interpersonal growth and self-actualisation in groups, Maslowski.r.m, Morgan.L, (1973). Text book of basic nursing, Roshahl.c, (2008). (2000) Penguin Dictionary of Sociology. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. An introduction, McGuire.K.J, (2012), pp281 Theory and practice of counselling and therapy, Jones.R.N, (2010) PP102. Journey into the looking glass, Gbadebo.S.A, (2011), pp124. Identity theory, Burke.P.j, (2009). Social identity and intergroup relations, Tajfel. H, (2010) A theory of human motivation, Maslow. A.H, (2013) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model, Rakowski.N, (2011). Erik Erickson, psychological stages simply psychology, Mcleod.S. Chapman, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (2001). Tiffany.L,, Erickson and Maslow, compare and contrast (2014).

Southwest Airlines Organizational Commitment and...

Southwest Airlines: Organizational Commitment and Communication Paper Communications for Accountants COM/530 Southwest Airlines: Organizational Commitment and Communication Paper Southwest Airlines’ strong organizational culture is reflected in its mission as shown in its website: â€Å"dedication to the highest quality of Customer Service delivered with a sense of warmth, friendliness, individual pride, and Company Spirit.† Southwest is a company that not only excels in customer service and profitability but also in employee development. Its organizational commitment is not reduce to the organization; it is actually expand it to an ongoing relationship with the employees where they have the opportunity to express their ideas,†¦show more content†¦Before people become employed at Southwest, the managers in charge of the hiring interview make sure they embed the organizational culture in the candidates. When they become part of the Southwest family, then they are treated like part of it. Any event in the lives of the employees are acknowledged and celebrated by everyon e, everyone cherish for the success and happiness of the members of the family. The company establishes special programs for families of employees. The company listens to comments and feedback, not only from employees, but also employees’ families, customers, and vendors (D’Aurizio, 2008). This company has become profitable by putting into practice the philosophy of an open communication. Southwest does not have the culture only in paper, they actually live it. The managers start giving the example to the employees, and they follow their leaders. Southwest strategically generates satisfaction to their employees, this needs satisfactions will later reflect and convert into satisfaction to the customer and shareholder value via organizational capabilities I believe the success of Southwest Airlines comes from the combination of different sources of power. 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